Flint Adolescent Study

Project Dates: 2007-2012

Principal Investigator: Marc Zimmerman, UM-SPH
Project Director: Emily Pingel, MPH, espingel@umich.edu

Funding: National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA)

Description:
The Flint Adolescent Study (FAS) is an ongoing interview study beginning with 850 ninth graders conducted in collaboration with Flint Community Schools. In order to study those students most at risk for leaving school before graduation, individuals with grade point averages of 3.0 and below were selected. The original goal of the study was to explore the protective factors associated with school dropout and alcohol and substance use. Students were sampled from the four main public high schools in Flint, Michigan. The study followed youth across their four high school years. We obtained a 90% response rate from Year 1 to Year 4.  The Year 1 sample includes 679 African-American youth (80%), 145 white youth (17%) and 26 mixed African-American and white youth (3%). We had an even distribution between males and females. The sample reflected the overall student body in the Flint High Schools in the Fall of 1994.

A year after participants were expected to have completed high school, we continued to follow the original sample for another four years as they transitioned from adolescence into young adulthood (Year 5 to Year 8).  The goal of the follow-up study was to examine the effects of adolescent alcohol and drug use on marriage and family formation, educational achievement, employment, and other health-related indicators such as psychological well-being and community involvement.  We obtained a 68% response rate over all eight years. 

In 2007, we were funded to collect data for another four years (Years 9 through 12).  Now in their mid-twenties, we are applying a socioecological life span model to the study of drug and alcohol abuse and dependence as study participants experience the middle adult transition period.  We are studying risk and promotive factors associated with drug abuse and dependence with a focus on life-stress, positive and negative influences from others, social capital and integration, and coping strategies. We measure social factors such as support from family and friends, behavioral influences from others, participation in voluntary organizations; individual level factors such as anxiety, depression, self-worth, ethnic identity, and anti-social behavior; and adult transitional factors such as marriage and family relationships; child bearing including parenting; employment issues (type of job, job qualities, and history).  We are also studying neighborhood contextual influences by linking our data to Census tract information and other secondary data sources.

Information obtained from youth across the Years includes:

• participation in church, school and community organizations
• social support and influence of family and friends (including mentoring)
• self-esteem, stress and psychological well being
• delinquent and violent behaviors; alcohol and substance abuse
• sex behaviors and child bearing
• school attitudes and performance
• family structure and relationships
• driving behavior (beginning in Years 3 & 4)
• racial identity (beginning in Year 3)
• marriage, parenting, and post-secondary education (beginning in Year 5)

Publications:

Elkington, K. S., J. A. Bauermeister & Zimmerman, M.A. (2010). Psychological distress, substance use, and HIV/STI risk behaviors among youth.Journal of Youth and Adolescence 39(5): 514-527.

Hurd, N. M., & Zimmerman, M. A. (In Press). Natural mentors and health outcomes: A longitudinal analysis of African American adolescents transitioning into adulthood. American Journal of Community Psychology.

Hurd, N. M., & Zimmerman, M. A. (In Press). Natural mentoring relationships among adolescent mothers: A study of resilience. Journal of Research on Adolescence.

Xue Y, Zimmerman MA, & Caldwell, C. (In press).  Longitudinal study of the relationship between alcohol use and violent behavior among urban African-American youths from adolescence to emerging adulthood. American Journal of Public Health.

Xue Y, Zimmerman MA, & Barnett T. (In press).  Parental support and the longitudinal relationships between exposure to community violence and violent behavior among African American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence. 

Bauermeister, J.A., Zimmerman, M., Caldwell, C, Xue, Y., & Gee, G.  (2009). What predicts sex partner age differences among African American youth? A longitudinal study from adolescence to young adulthood.  Journal of Sex Research, 10:1-15. PMID: 19517294 [View Abstract]

Bauermeister, J.A.., Zimmerman, M.A., Gee, G.C., Caldwell, C. & Xue, Y. (2009). Work and Sexual Trajectories Among African American Youth. Journal of Sex Research, 46(1): 1-11. PMID: 19137477 [View Abstract]

Hurd, NM, Zimmerman, MA, & Xue, Y. (2009). Negative adult influences and the protective effects of role models: A study with urban adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(6), 777-789. PMID: 19636780 [View Abstract]

Bauermeister, J. A., Zimmerman, M., Xue, Y., Gee, G. C., & Caldwell, C. H. (2008). Working, sex partner age differences, and sexual behavior among African American youth. Archives of Sexual Behavior. doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9376-3. PMID: 18574686 [View Abstract]

Repetto PB, Zimmerman MA, & Caldwell CH. (2008). A longitudinal study of depressive symptoms and marijuana use in a sample of inner-city African Americans. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 18(3), 421-447.

Bauermeister JA, Zimmerman MA, Barnett TE, & Caldwell CH. (2007). Working in high school and adaptation in the transition to young adulthood among African American youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 877-90.

Fergus, S., Zimmerman, MA, & Caldwell, CH. (2007). Growth trajectories of sexual risk behavior in adolescence and young adulthood. American Journal of Public Health, 97(6), 1096-1101.PMID: 17463379 [View Abstract]

Xue Y, Zimmerman MA, & Caldwell CH. (2007). Neighborhood residence and cigarette smoking among urban youths: The protective role of prosocial activities. American Journal of Public Health, 97(10):1865-72. [PMID: 17761584]

Fergus, S., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2005). Adolescent resilience: A framework for understanding healthy development in the face of risk. Annual Review of Public Health, 26, 399-399-419.
View in PubMed |Abstract Adolescent resilience research differs from risk research by focusing on the assets and resources that enable some adolescents to overcome the negative effects of risk exposure. We discuss three models of resilience-the compensatory, protective, and challenge models-and describe how resilience differs from related concepts. We describe issues and limitations related to resilience and provide an overview of recent resilience research related to adolescent substance use, violent behavior, and sexual risk behavior. We then discuss implications that resilience research has for intervention and describe some resilience-based interventions. |

Fergus, S., Zimmerman, M.A., & Caldwell, C.H. (2005). Psychosocial correlates of smoking trajectories among urban, African American adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20(4), 423-452.

Caldwell, C.H., Kohn-Wood, L.P., Schmeelk-Cone, K.H., Chavous, T.M., & Zimmerman, M.A. (2004). Racial discrimination and racial identity as risk or protective factors for violent behaviors in African American young adults. American Journal of Community Psychology, 33, 91-105.

Caldwell, C.H., Sellers, R.M., Bernat, D.H., & Zimmerman, M.A. (2004). Racial identity, parental support and alcohol use in a sample of academically at-risk African American high school students. American Journal of Community Psychology, 34(1-2), 71-82.

Repetto, P.B., Zimmerman, M.A., Caldwell, C.H. (2004). A longitudinal study of the relationship between depressive symptoms and alcohol use in a sample of inner-city black youth. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 65, 169-178.

Repetto, P.B., Caldwell, C.H., & Zimmerman, M.A. (2004). Trajectories of depressive symptoms among high risk African-American adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health 35(6), 468-477.

Steinman, K. J., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2004). Religious activity and risk behavior among African American adolescents: Concurrent and developmental effects. American Journal of Community Psychology, 33(3-4), 151-161.
View in PubMed |Abstract This study examines how religious activity is associated with risk behaviors, concurrently and developmentally among urban African American adolescents. Seven hundred and five African American youths were interviewed annually during high school. Retention rates for the study exceeded 90%. Frequency of religious activity, sexual intercourse, and alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use were assessed at each wave. Growth curve analyses found negative concurrent associations between religious activity and each of the four risk behaviors. The developmental effects of religious activity varied by gender. Higher levels of religious activity in 9th grade predicted smaller increases in marijuana use among males and cigarette use among females. In addition, larger decreases in religious activity during high school were associated with greater increases in alcohol use among males and sexual intercourse among females. During high school, religious activity limits the development of certain types of risk behavior among African American youth, even after controlling for reciprocal effects. |

Bryant, A., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2003). Role models and psychosocial outcomes among African American adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 18(1), 36-67. PMID: 8556888 View in PubMed |Abstract Substance use and delinquency, psychological well-being, and social support were compared across 5 family constellations among 254 urban African-American adolescent males. Single-mother, stepparent, both parents, mother with extended family, and extended family only households were studied. The only differences found were that youth living in single-mother households reported more parental support than other youth. Relationships with father and male role models were also studied and related to several psychosocial outcomes. The results challenge the assumptions that single African-American mothers are alone in providing support to their sons and that fathers' absence results in no significant relationship. |

Caldwell, C. H., Chavous, T. M., Barnett, T. E., Kohn-Wood, L. P., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2003). Social determinants of experiences with violence among adolescents: Unpacking the role of race in violence. Phylon, 50, 87-113.

Chavous, T. M., Bernat, D. H., Schmeelk-Cone, K. H., Caldwell, C. H., Kohn-Wood, L. P., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2003). Racial identity and academic attainment among African American adolescents. Child Development, 74(4), 1076-1090.
View in PubMed |Abstract In this study, the relationships between racial identity and academic outcomes for African American adolescents were explored. In examining race beliefs, the study differentiated among (a) importance of race (centrality), (b) group affect (private regard), and (c) perceptions of societal beliefs (public regard) among 606 African American 17-year-old adolescents. Using cluster analysis, profiles of racial identity variables were created, and these profile groups were related to educational beliefs, performance, and later attainment (high school completion and college attendance). Results indicated cluster differences across study outcomes. Also, the relationships between academic attitudes and academic attainment differed across groups. Finally, the paper includes a discussion on the need to consider variation in how minority youth think about group membership in better understanding their academic development. |

Schmeelk-Cone, K. H., Zimmerman, M. A., & Abelson, J. L. (2003). The buffering effects of active coping on the relationship between SES and cortisol among African American young adults. Behavioral Medicine, 29(2), 85-94. PMID: 15147107
View in PubMed |Abstract Cortisol levels have consistently been related to socioeconomic status (SES). Possible moderators for this relationship are coping styles that are known to moderate relationships between cardiovascular factors and SES. The authors examined whether coping style moderated a relationship between resting cortisol levels and various measures of SES in a sample of urban, African American young adults. Those scoring low on coping style had high cortisol levels if they were currently students or unemployed. This effect, however, differed for men and women. The authors suggest that coping style may play an adaptive role regarding salivary cortisol measures in young adults when they are students or unemployed. Active coping may help protect against stress among young African American adults. |

Sellers, R. M., Caldwell, C. H., Schmeelk-Cone, K. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2003). Racial identity, racial discrimination, perceived stress, and psychological distress among African American young adults. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 44(3), 302-317.PMID: 14582310
View in PubMed |Abstract This study examines the direct and indirect relationships among racial identity, racial discrimination, perceived stress, and psychological distress in a sample of 555 African American young adults. A prospective study design was used to assess the influence of two dimensions of racial identity attitudes (i.e., centrality and public regard) on other study variables to investigate the relationship between racial identity attitudes and psychological distress. The results show some evidence of a direct relationship between racial centrality and psychological distress, as well as evidence of indirect relationships for both centrality and public regard through the impact of racial discrimination and perceived stress. In addition, racial centrality was both a risk factor for experiencing discrimination and a protective factor in buffering the negative impact of discrimination on psychological distress. Results are discussed within the context of identifying multiple pathways to psychological well-being for African American young adults within the context of racial discrimination. |

Steinman, K. J., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2003). Episodic and persistent gun-carrying among urban African-American adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 32(5), 356-364. PMID: 12729985
View in PubMed |Abstract To examine whether similar risk factors influenced episodic and persistent gun-carrying among urban African-American adolescents. METHODS: The sample consisted of 705 African-American youths (48.9% male; mean age at baseline = 14.56 years) who were interviewed annually throughout high school as part of a larger study on students who leave school before graduation. Episodic gun-carrying was defined as carrying a gun during one or two waves of the study. Persistent gun-carrying involved carrying a gun during three or four waves. Data were analyzed using multinomial logistic regression to test how risk factors assessed at ninth grade influenced the persistence of gun-carrying. RESULTS: Fifteen percent of students reported carrying a gun episodically, and 5% persistently. "Male gender" (OR = 3.61, 95% CI = 2.16-6.04), "adult weapon-carrying" (OR = 1.58, 95% CI = 1.20-2.09), "marijuana use" (OR = 1.03, 95% CI = 1.01-1.06), "selling drugs" (OR = 3.24, 95% CI = 1.52-6.92), and "fighting" (OR = 1.57, 95% CI = 1.14-2.15) distinguished noncarriers from episodic carriers. Frequency of fighting (OR = 1.60, 95% CI = 1.00-2.57) and selling drugs (OR = 3.29, 95% CI = 1.16-9.35) distinguished episodic gun-carriers from persistent gun-carriers. Variables associated with victimization did not uniquely differentiate among the patterns of gun-carrying. These results were similar for males and females. CONCLUSIONS: Similar risk factors characterize episodic and persistent gun-carrying. Specifically, selling drugs and fighting had a strong dose-response relationship with the persistence of gun-carrying. In this population, episodic gun-carrying should be viewed as very risky and not merely as youthful experimentation or a defensive behavior. |

Zimmerman, M. A., & Schmeelk-Cone, K. H. (2003). A longitudinal analysis of adolescent substance use and school motivation among African American youth. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 13(2), 185-210. [View Journal]

Caldwell, C. H., Zimmerman, M. A., Bernat, D. H., Sellers, R. M., & Notaro, P. C. (2002). Racial identity, maternal support, and psychological distress among African American adolescents. Child Development, 73(4), 1322-1336. PMID: 12146750
View in PubMed |Abstract This study investigated the role of racial identity and maternal support in reducing psychological distress among African American adolescents. Both direct and indirect influences of multiple dimensions of racial identity (i.e., centrality, private regard) and maternal support on perceived stress, depressive symptoms, and anxiety were examined among 521 African American twelfth graders. Findings indicated that maternal support was positively related to both centrality and private regard. Results provided little support for a direct association between racial identity or maternal support and depressive symptoms and anxiety within a multivariate context. Rather, the influences of racial identity attitudes and maternal support on these mental health outcomes were mediated by perceived stress. Further, the two racial identity attitudes were associated with perceived stress in different ways. Study findings suggest that the significance and meaning that African American adolescents attribute to being Black may be critical to their psychological well-being, and that maternal support and perceived stress are important considerations. |

Miller, A. L., Notaro, P. C., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2002). Stability and change in internal working models of friendship: Associations with multiple domains of urban adolescent functioning. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 19(2), 233-259. [View Journal]

Zimmerman, M. A., Bingenheimer, J. B., & Notaro, P. C. (2002). Natural mentors and adolescent resiliency: A study with urban youth. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30(2), 221-243. PMID: 12002244 View in PubMed |Abstract Natural mentors may play an important role in the lives of adolescents. We interviewed 770 adolescents from a large Midwestern city. Fifty-two percent reported having a natural mentor. Those with natural mentors were less likely to smoke marijuana or be involved in nonviolent delinquency, and had more positive attitudes toward school. Natural mentors had no apparent effect on anxiety or depression. Using the resiliency theory framework, natural mentors were found to have compensatory but not protective effects on problem behaviors, and both compensatory and protective effects on school attitudes. Direct and indirect (mediated) effects of natural mentors are explored for problem behaviors and school attitudes. The potential importance of natural mentors is supported, and implications for future research are considered. |

Notaro, P. C., Gelman, S. A., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2001). Children's understanding of psychogenic bodily reactions. Child Development, 72(2), 444-459. PMID: 11333077
View in PubMed |Abstract One hundred twenty-eight children in preschool through fifth grade (range = 4,3-11,4) and 76 adults serving as a comparison group participated in two studies that examined how children reason about psychogenic bodily reactions, that is, ailments or nonconscious physiological responses with origins in the mind (e.g., stress-induced headache). Psychogenic bodily reactions provide an opportunity to study how children integrate knowledge between the domains of bodily response and psychology. In Study 1, participants were asked whether various familiar psychogenic bodily reactions were possible (e.g., can someone get a tummyache from worrying?). In Study 2, participants were presented with a novel domain (hypothetical "aliens" from outer space) and were asked whether various unfamiliar bodily conditions (e.g., toes swelling) could arise from various physical or psychological causes. As predicted, adults typically reported that psychogenic bodily reactions were possible, and that unfamiliar bodily conditions could result from either psychological or physical causes. In contrast, young children typically denied that psychogenic bodily reactions could occur and predicted that unfamiliar bodily conditions resulted from physical causes only. The results support a developmental path: younger children view psychogenic bodily responses as wholly physical, but with age, view them as both physical and psychological phenomena. |

Zimmerman, M. A., Tuttle, L., Kieffer, E. C., Parker, E. A., Caldwell, C. H., & Maton, K. I. (2001). Psychosocial outcomes of urban African American adolescents born to teenage mothers. American Journal of Community Psychology, 29(5), 779-805. PMID: 11594699
View in PubMed |Abstract This is a study of psychosocial outcomes of adolescents born to teenage mothers. Adolescents'problem behaviors, psychological well-being, social support, school variables, and sexual behaviors are compared across three groups- those born to mothers 17 or younger, mothers 18-19 years old, and mothers 20 or older. Analyses from two samples of African American adolescents from Maryland (n = 205) and Michigan (n = 570) are reported. The results from both samples indicate that mother's age at birth is unrelated to adolescents' psychosocial outcomes. These two studies add to the limited number of analyses that examine adolescent outcomes for children of teen mothers. The results suggest that efforts to understand social structural determinants of healthy and problematic adolescent development may be more informative than examining the effects of mother's age. They also suggest that teen pregnancy prevention programs may be more effective if they are part of a larger prevention strategy that incorporates social structural change efforts and not only a focus on individual level change. |

Newman, P. A., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2000). Gender differences in HIV-related sexual risk behavior among urban African American youth: A multivariate approach. AIDS Education & Prevention, 12(4), 308-325. PMID: 10982121
View in PubMed |Abstract Alcohol and other drug (AOD) use during sexual encounters, sexual partner's age, perceived HIV risk and perceived condom effectiveness were studied among 388 sexually active African American youth. Cluster analysis of condom use, number of partners, and frequency of sexual intercourse identified four groups: low risk, monogamy strategy, condom strategy, and high risk. Low-risk youth used condoms consistently and had few partners. High-risk youth used condoms inconsistently with many partners. Monogamy strategy youth used condoms inconsistently but had few partners. Condom strategy youth used condoms consistently with a moderate number of partners. The high-risk group included more males and the monogamy group included more females. High-risk males reported more AOD use during sexual activity than all females, and low-risk or condom strategy males. Females had older partners, rated condoms as less effective and perceived lower HIV/AIDS risk than males. Results suggest differential HIV risk mechanisms by gender. Implications for gender-specific HIV prevention are discussed. |

Zimmerman, M. A., Ramirez-Valles, J., & Maton, K. I. (1999). Resilience among urban African American male adolescents: A study of the protective effects of sociopolitical control on their mental health. American Journal of Community Psychology, 27(6), 733-751. PMID: 10723533
View in PubMed |Abstract Resilience refers to the notion that some people succeed in the face of adversity. In a risk-protective model of resilience, a protective factor interacts with a risk factor to mitigate the occurrence of a negative outcome. This study tested longitudinally the protective effects of sociopolitical control on the link between helplessness and mental health. The study included 172 urban, male, African American adolescents, who were interviewed twice, 6 months apart. Sociopolitical control was defined as the beliefs about one's capabilities and efficacy in social and political systems. Two mental health outcomes were examined--psychological symptoms and self-esteem. Regression analysis to predict psychological symptoms and self-esteem over time were conducted. High levels of sociopolitical control were found to limit the negative consequences of helplessness on mental health. The results suggest that sociopolitical control may help to protect youths from the negative consequences of feelings of helplessness. Implications for prevention strategies are discussed. |

Doljanac, R. F., & Zimmerman, M. A. (1998). Psychosocial factors and high-risk sexual behavior: Race differences among urban adolescents. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 21(5), 451-467. PMID: 9836131
View in PubMed |Abstract Adolescence is a period of sexual experimentation. We examined psychosocial predictors of high-risk sexual behavior and condom use. The sample included 824 ninth-graders, most of whom are African American. We conducted separate analyses for whites and African Americans. Predictors included alcohol and substance use, delinquency, prosocial behaviors, and family and peer influences. We found that problem behaviors predicted high-risk sexual behavior, but the effects were stronger for white youth. We also found that friends' behaviors were more predictive than family influences, except for family conflict. In general, the models explained more variance for white youths than for African-American youths. The results suggest that problem behavior theory and social interactions theory may be most relevant for white youth and that other models may be necessary to explain high-risk sexual behavior among African-American youths. |

Ramirez-Valles, J., Zimmerman, M. A., & Newcomb, M. D. (1998). Sexual risk behavior among youth: Modeling the influence of prosocial activities and socioeconomic factors. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 39(3), 237-253. PMID: 9785696
View in PubMed |Abstract Sexual activity among high-school-aged youths has steadily increased since the 1970s, emerging as a significant public health concern. Yet, patterns of youth sexual risk behavior are shaped by social class, race, and gender. Based on sociological theories of financial deprivation and collective socialization, we develop and test a model of the relationships among neighborhood poverty; family structure and social class position; parental involvement; prosocial activities; race; and gender as they predict youth sexual risk behavior. We employ structural equation modeling to test this model on a cross-sectional sample of 370 sexually active high-school students from a midwestern city; 57 percent (n = 209) are males and 86 percent are African American. We find that family structure indirectly predicts sexual risk behavior through neighborhood poverty, parental involvement, and prosocial activities. In addition, family class position indirectly predicts sexual risk behavior through neighborhood poverty and prosocial activities. We address implications for theory and health promotion. PIP: Sexual activity among high school-aged youths has increased steadily since the 1970s, with more than half of high school students in 1990 being sexually active, and only about half of those individuals reporting that they or their sex partners used condoms during their most recent sexual intercourse. Patterns of youth sexual risk behavior and their consequences are, however, partly defined by social class, race, and gender. Based upon sociological theories of financial deprivation and collective socialization, the authors develop and test a model of the relationships among neighborhood poverty; family structure and social class position; parental involvement; prosocial activities; race; and gender as they predict youth sexual risk behavior. Structural equation modeling is used to test the model upon a cross-sectional sample of 209 male and 161 female sexually active high school students from Michigan. The students are 86% Black and of mean age 14.63 years. Family structure was found to indirectly predict sexual risk behavior through neighborhood poverty, parental involvement, and prosocial activities, while family class position indirectly predicts sexual risk behavior through neighborhood poverty and prosocial activities. Implications for theory and health promotion are considered. |

Salem, D. A., Zimmerman, M. A., & Notaro, P. C. (1998). Effects of family structure, family process, and father involvement on psychosocial outcomes among African American adolescents. Family Relations, 47(4), 331-341. [View Journal]

Stevenson, W., Maton, K. I., & Teti, D. M. (1998). School importance and dropout among pregnant adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 22, 376-382. PMID: 9589338
View in PubMed |Abstract This study examined the relationship of psychological well-being, social support, and demographic variables to school importance and school dropout among pregnant teens. METHOD: Fifty-one Caucasians and 68 African-Americans (mean age = 16.7 years, mean weeks pregnant = 23) were recruited from two Baltimore area prenatal teen clinics. The adolescents completed questionnaires measuring depression, self-esteem, mastery, parental and friend support, demographic characteristics (i.e., age, marital status, ethnicity, socioeconomic status), school importance, and status. RESULTS: Most adolescents were enrolled in school or had graduated (69.7%), were receiving at least passing grades (78.7%), and perceived finishing high school as very important (76.7%). Blacks were more likely to say school was important (p < 0.001), were less likely to drop out (p < 0.01), and received higher grades (p < 0.01) than whites. Dropouts had lower family incomes than current school attenders and graduates (p < 0.05). One measure of psychological well-being (mastery, p < 0.01) was positively correlated with school importance. Social support did not correlate with school importance or dropout. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that dropping out of school among pregnant teens may be more strongly related to sociocultural factors than to individual characteristics such as emotional support and psychological well-being. Overall, this study reveals a positive picture of educational continuation and performance during pregnancy, with most adolescents recognizing the importance of education and remaining in school. |

Zimmerman, M. A., Steinman, K. J., & Rowe, K. (1998). Violence among urban African American adolescents: The protective effects of parent support. In X. B. Arriaga, & S. Oskamp (Eds.), Addressing community problems : Psychological Research and Interventions (pp. 78-103). Newbury Park, Calif. : Sage Publications.

Edited Books and Book Chapters

Zimmerman, M.A. & Brenner, A.B. (in press). Resilience in Adolescence: Overcoming neighborhood disadvantage. In Reich, J.W., Zautra, A.J. & Hall, J.S. (Eds.). Handbook of Adult Resilience: Concepts, Methods, and Applications.  New York, NY, Guilford Press.

Zimmerman, M.A., Bingenheimer, J.B. & Behrendt, D.E. (2005). Natural mentoring relationships. In D.L. Dubois & M.J. Karcher (Eds.) Handbook of Youth Mentoring (pp. 143-157). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Posters and Presentations

Brenner, A., Zimmerman, M., & Caldwell, C. (2009, November). Neighborhood variation in alcohol use for African American and White youth. Oral presentation to be presented at the 2009 American Public Health Association Meeting.

Bauermeister, J.A., Zimmerman, M.A., & Caldwell, C. (2009, November). Condom use among urban youth across the high school years: The role of neighborhood characteristics.  Oral presentation to be presented at the 2009 American Public Health Association Meeting (November).

Hurd, N., Bauermeister, J., & Zimmerman, M.A. (2009, October). Predictors of Occupational Outcomes among African American Emerging Adults: An Analysis of Positive Influences. Poster to be presented at the 2009 Emerging Adulthood Conference.

Bauermeister, J.A., Zimmerman, M.A., & Caldwell, C. (2009, August). Condom use among urban youth across the high school years: The role of neighborhood characteristics.  Oral presentation to be offered at the 2009 Meeting of the International Academy of Sex Research.

Zimmerman, M. (2009, April). Adolescent resilience and empowerment. Keynote speaker at University of Victoria’s Centre for Youth and Society Conference, Victoria, BC.

Brenner, A. (2009, March). Neighborhood characteristics and drug use: The role of context in adolescent marijuana use.  Presented as part of a panel discussion at the Emerging Issues in Poverty and Inequality Conference, University of Michigan.

Zimmerman, M. (2008, December). Youth violence: It’s a public health issue.  Presentation offered as part of the Public Health Grand Rounds. University of Michigan School of Public Health, Office of Public Health Practice, Ann Arbor.

Bauermeister, J.A., Zimmerman, M., Caldwell, C, Xue, Y., & Gee, G. (2008, August). Sex partner age differences and sex risk behaviors among African American youth.  Poster presented at the 2008 International World AIDS Conference, Mexico City, Mexico.

Hurd, N. & Zimmerman, M.A. (2008, August). Natural mentoring relationships among adolescent mothers: A study of resiliency.  Poster presented at the American Psychological Association Annual Convention in Boston, MA.

Hurd, N. & Zimmerman, M.A. (2008, March). Natural mentors and adolescent health: A longitudinal analysis of African American youth transitioning into adulthood.  Poster presented at the Society for Research on Adolescence Biennial Meeting in Chicago, IL.

Hurd, N., Xue, Y., & Zimmerman, M.A. (2007, March). Negative adult influences and the protective effects of role models: A study with African American adolescents.  Poster presented at the Society for Research in Child Development Biennial Meeting in Boston, MA.

Fergus, S. & Zimmerman, M.A. (December 2005). Sexual risk behavior growth trajectories in adolescence and the transition to adulthood: Modeling mother and father support as resilience factors in a predominantly African-American sample. Annual Meeting of the American Public Health Association, Philadelphia, PA.

Flint Adolescent Study in the News:

"Long work hours ruin teens sexual health".Times of India, August 27th, 2009.

"Wrong workplace prompts teens to bed older partners." Sindhtoday.net, August 27, 2009.

"Wrong workplace prompts teens to bed older partners". TechRadar.com, August 27, 2009.

"Working may stress teen sexual health" . Psychcentral.com, August 26, 2009.

"Working too much can be dangerous for teen's sexual health". UM Press Release August 25th, 2009.

"Certain working environments may be dangerous to young people's sexual health." The Record Update, August 17, 2009